| <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="1320" height="760" viewBox="0 0 1320 760" role="img" aria-labelledby="chart-title chart-desc"> |
| <title id="chart-title">Network size versus CIFAR-10 test accuracy</title> |
| <desc id="chart-desc">Log-scale trainable parameters versus test accuracy. Direct labels identify every completed model. The dashed line marks the non-dominated Pareto frontier. DynamicCNN is excluded because its validation and test results are inconsistent.</desc> |
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| <text x="660" y="38" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="26" font-weight="700" fill="#1c1b22">Network size vs. test accuracy</text> |
| <text x="660" y="62" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="13" fill="#4a4856">Log parameter scale 路 direct labels 路 completed runs only</text> |
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| <line x1="124.9" y1="82" x2="124.9" y2="600" stroke="#eee9df" stroke-dasharray="3 5"/> |
| <text x="124.9" y="625" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">5k</text> |
| <line x1="186.6" y1="82" x2="186.6" y2="600" stroke="#eee9df" stroke-dasharray="3 5"/> |
| <text x="186.6" y="625" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">10k</text> |
| <line x1="330.0" y1="82" x2="330.0" y2="600" stroke="#eee9df" stroke-dasharray="3 5"/> |
| <text x="330.0" y="625" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">50k</text> |
| <line x1="391.8" y1="82" x2="391.8" y2="600" stroke="#eee9df" stroke-dasharray="3 5"/> |
| <text x="391.8" y="625" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">100k</text> |
| <line x1="535.2" y1="82" x2="535.2" y2="600" stroke="#eee9df" stroke-dasharray="3 5"/> |
| <text x="535.2" y="625" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">500k</text> |
| <line x1="597.0" y1="82" x2="597.0" y2="600" stroke="#eee9df" stroke-dasharray="3 5"/> |
| <text x="597.0" y="625" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">1M</text> |
| <line x1="694.8" y1="82" x2="694.8" y2="600" stroke="#eee9df" stroke-dasharray="3 5"/> |
| <text x="694.8" y="625" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">3M</text> |
| <line x1="802.1" y1="82" x2="802.1" y2="600" stroke="#eee9df" stroke-dasharray="3 5"/> |
| <text x="802.1" y="625" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">10M</text> |
| <line x1="900.0" y1="82" x2="900.0" y2="600" stroke="#eee9df" stroke-dasharray="3 5"/> |
| <text x="900.0" y="625" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">30M</text> |
| <line x1="105" y1="600.0" x2="900" y2="600.0" stroke="#eee9df"/> |
| <text x="93" y="604.0" text-anchor="end" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">50%</text> |
| <line x1="105" y1="542.4" x2="900" y2="542.4" stroke="#eee9df"/> |
| <text x="93" y="546.4" text-anchor="end" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">55%</text> |
| <line x1="105" y1="484.9" x2="900" y2="484.9" stroke="#eee9df"/> |
| <text x="93" y="488.9" text-anchor="end" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">60%</text> |
| <line x1="105" y1="427.3" x2="900" y2="427.3" stroke="#eee9df"/> |
| <text x="93" y="431.3" text-anchor="end" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">65%</text> |
| <line x1="105" y1="369.8" x2="900" y2="369.8" stroke="#eee9df"/> |
| <text x="93" y="373.8" text-anchor="end" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">70%</text> |
| <line x1="105" y1="312.2" x2="900" y2="312.2" stroke="#eee9df"/> |
| <text x="93" y="316.2" text-anchor="end" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">75%</text> |
| <line x1="105" y1="254.7" x2="900" y2="254.7" stroke="#eee9df"/> |
| <text x="93" y="258.7" text-anchor="end" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">80%</text> |
| <line x1="105" y1="197.1" x2="900" y2="197.1" stroke="#eee9df"/> |
| <text x="93" y="201.1" text-anchor="end" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">85%</text> |
| <line x1="105" y1="139.6" x2="900" y2="139.6" stroke="#eee9df"/> |
| <text x="93" y="143.6" text-anchor="end" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">90%</text> |
| <line x1="105" y1="82.0" x2="900" y2="82.0" stroke="#eee9df"/> |
| <text x="93" y="86.0" text-anchor="end" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">95%</text> |
| <text x="502.5" y="655" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="14" fill="#4a4856">Trainable parameters (log scale)</text> |
| <text x="24" y="341.0" transform="rotate(-90 24 341.0)" text-anchor="middle" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="14" fill="#4a4856">Test accuracy (%)</text> |
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| <text x="445.0" y="232.9" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#b0641e">Pareto frontier</text> |
| <line x1="123.6" y1="420.0" x2="142.6" y2="497.1" stroke="#7c3aed" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <circle cx="123.6" cy="420.0" r="7" fill="#7c3aed" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="137.6" y="501.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">MobileNet-A 路 65.64%</text> |
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| <polygon points="130.3,430.0 139.3,439.0 130.3,448.0 121.3,439.0" fill="#7c3aed" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="144.3" y="521.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">MobileNet-A + LN 路 63.99%</text> |
| <line x1="130.8" y1="383.8" x2="149.8" y2="457.1" stroke="#7c3aed" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <rect x="123.8" y="376.8" width="14" height="14" rx="2" fill="#7c3aed" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="144.8" y="461.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">MobileNet-A + BN 路 68.78%</text> |
| <line x1="181.8" y1="519.2" x2="200.8" y2="537.1" stroke="#7c3aed" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <circle cx="181.8" cy="519.2" r="7" fill="#7c3aed" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="195.8" y="541.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">MobileNet-B 路 57.02%</text> |
| <line x1="186.9" y1="368.3" x2="205.9" y2="437.1" stroke="#7c3aed" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
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| <text x="200.9" y="441.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">MobileNet-B + LN 路 70.13%</text> |
| <line x1="187.3" y1="412.6" x2="206.3" y2="477.1" stroke="#7c3aed" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <rect x="180.3" y="405.6" width="14" height="14" rx="2" fill="#7c3aed" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="201.3" y="481.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">MobileNet-B + BN 路 66.28%</text> |
| <line x1="229.9" y1="315.6" x2="248.9" y2="397.1" stroke="#7c3aed" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <circle cx="229.9" cy="315.6" r="7" fill="#7c3aed" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="243.9" y="401.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">MobileNet-C 路 74.71%</text> |
| <line x1="234.0" y1="324.2" x2="253.0" y2="417.1" stroke="#7c3aed" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <polygon points="234.0,315.2 243.0,324.2 234.0,333.2 225.0,324.2" fill="#7c3aed" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="248.0" y="421.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">MobileNet-C + LN 路 73.96%</text> |
| <line x1="234.3" y1="280.2" x2="253.3" y2="377.1" stroke="#7c3aed" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <rect x="227.3" y="273.2" width="14" height="14" rx="2" fill="#7c3aed" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="248.3" y="381.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">MobileNet-C + BN 路 77.78%</text> |
| <line x1="427.0" y1="250.9" x2="446.0" y2="337.1" stroke="#3b32a8" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <circle cx="427.0" cy="250.9" r="7" fill="#3b32a8" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="441.0" y="341.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">CNN-A + DEF 路 80.33%</text> |
| <line x1="427.1" y1="240.5" x2="446.1" y2="297.1" stroke="#3b32a8" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <rect x="420.1" y="233.5" width="14" height="14" rx="2" fill="#3b32a8" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="441.1" y="301.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">CNN-A + BN 路 81.23%</text> |
| <line x1="427.1" y1="237.3" x2="446.1" y2="277.1" stroke="#3b32a8" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <polygon points="427.1,228.3 436.1,237.3 427.1,246.3 418.1,237.3" fill="#3b32a8" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="441.1" y="281.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">CNN-A + LN 路 81.51%</text> |
| <line x1="489.9" y1="110.4" x2="508.9" y2="118.0" stroke="#b0641e" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <circle cx="489.9" cy="110.4" r="7" fill="#b0641e" stroke="#b0641e" stroke-width="3"/> |
| <text x="503.9" y="122.0" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">DenseCNN 路 92.53%</text> |
| <line x1="543.1" y1="262.6" x2="562.1" y2="357.1" stroke="#d97706" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <polygon points="543.1,253.6 552.1,270.6 534.1,270.6" fill="#d97706" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="557.1" y="361.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">ViT 路 79.31%</text> |
| <line x1="550.1" y1="203.7" x2="569.1" y2="257.1" stroke="#3b32a8" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <circle cx="550.1" cy="203.7" r="7" fill="#3b32a8" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="564.1" y="261.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">CNN-B + DEF 路 84.43%</text> |
| <line x1="550.2" y1="240.6" x2="569.2" y2="317.1" stroke="#0d6b4f" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <rect x="543.2" y="233.6" width="14" height="14" rx="2" fill="#0d6b4f" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="564.2" y="321.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">R-CNN-B + BN 路 81.22%</text> |
| <line x1="550.2" y1="193.4" x2="569.2" y2="237.1" stroke="#3b32a8" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <polygon points="550.2,184.4 559.2,193.4 550.2,202.4 541.2,193.4" fill="#3b32a8" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="564.2" y="241.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">CNN-B + LN 路 85.32%</text> |
| <line x1="550.2" y1="184.4" x2="569.2" y2="217.1" stroke="#3b32a8" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <rect x="543.2" y="177.4" width="14" height="14" rx="2" fill="#3b32a8" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="564.2" y="221.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">CNN-B + BN 路 86.10%</text> |
| <line x1="673.5" y1="181.3" x2="692.5" y2="197.1" stroke="#3b32a8" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <circle cx="673.5" cy="181.3" r="7" fill="#3b32a8" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="687.5" y="201.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">CNN-C + DEF 路 86.37%</text> |
| <line x1="673.5" y1="165.7" x2="692.5" y2="177.1" stroke="#3b32a8" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <polygon points="673.5,156.7 682.5,165.7 673.5,174.7 664.5,165.7" fill="#3b32a8" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="687.5" y="181.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">CNN-C + LN 路 87.73%</text> |
| <line x1="673.5" y1="157.1" x2="692.5" y2="157.1" stroke="#3b32a8" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <rect x="666.5" y="150.1" width="14" height="14" rx="2" fill="#3b32a8" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="3"/> |
| <text x="687.5" y="161.1" text-anchor="start" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">CNN Best (C + BN) 路 88.48%</text> |
| <line x1="878.3" y1="105.7" x2="859.3" y2="118.0" stroke="#be123c" stroke-width="1" opacity=".6"/> |
| <rect x="871.3" y="98.7" width="14" height="14" rx="2" fill="#be123c" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="1.5"/> |
| <text x="864.3" y="122.0" text-anchor="end" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" font-weight="600" fill="#1c1b22" paint-order="stroke" stroke="#ffffff" stroke-width="4" stroke-linejoin="round">ResNet-50 路 92.94%</text> |
| <text x="955" y="94" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="15" font-weight="700" fill="#1c1b22">How to read it</text> |
| <text x="955" y="118" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">x = parameters 路 y = test accuracy</text> |
| <line x1="955" y1="132" x2="1270" y2="132" stroke="#e6e1d6"/> |
| <text x="955" y="158" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="13" font-weight="700" fill="#1c1b22">Architecture family</text> |
| <circle cx="962" cy="180" r="7" fill="#3b32a8"/> |
| <text x="977" y="184" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">CNN</text> |
| <circle cx="962" cy="205" r="7" fill="#b0641e"/> |
| <text x="977" y="209" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">DenseCNN</text> |
| <circle cx="962" cy="230" r="7" fill="#7c3aed"/> |
| <text x="977" y="234" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">MobileNet</text> |
| <circle cx="962" cy="255" r="7" fill="#0d6b4f"/> |
| <text x="977" y="259" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">R-CNN</text> |
| <circle cx="962" cy="280" r="7" fill="#d97706"/> |
| <text x="977" y="284" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">ViT</text> |
| <circle cx="962" cy="305" r="7" fill="#be123c"/> |
| <text x="977" y="309" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">ResNet</text> |
| <text x="955" y="322" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="13" font-weight="700" fill="#1c1b22">Normalization shape</text> |
| <circle cx="962" cy="348" r="7" fill="#3b32a8"/><text x="977" y="352" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">def 路 circle</text> |
| <rect x="955" y="368" width="14" height="14" rx="2" fill="#3b32a8"/><text x="977" y="380" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">bn 路 square</text> |
| <polygon points="962,392 971,401 962,410 953,401" fill="#3b32a8"/><text x="977" y="405" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">ln 路 diamond</text> |
| <polygon points="962,420 971,437 953,437" fill="#d97706"/><text x="977" y="434" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">ViT LayerNorm 路 triangle</text> |
| <line x1="955" y1="458" x2="1270" y2="458" stroke="#e6e1d6"/> |
| <text x="955" y="484" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="13" font-weight="700" fill="#b0641e">Pareto frontier</text> |
| <text x="955" y="505" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">Non-dominated accuracy</text> |
| <text x="955" y="523" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">for a given parameter budget.</text> |
| <text x="955" y="565" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">CNN Best = CNN-C + BN</text> |
| <text x="955" y="584" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#807d8f">DynamicCNN excluded: investigation</text> |
| <text x="105" y="670" font-family="Inter,Arial,sans-serif" font-size="12" fill="#4a4856">ResNet-50 reaches 92.94%; DenseCNN reaches 92.53% with 300,634 parameters; CNN Best reaches 88.48%.</text> |
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